Infrastructure
Infrastructure refers to the physical support services necessary
for development. At the simplest level, a road, driveway or
easement of some type is essential to gaining property access and
allowing development on a property. Other infrastructure can
include water or sewer lines in developed areas, or wells and
irrigation channels in rural areas. Electrical power, telephone
lines, television cable and fiber optic are also considered
infrastructure. Generally, the more people expected at a site,
the more infrastructure that is needed to provide services.
Infrastructure for individual projects is handled at the staff
level and is usually the first question asked concerning the
development potential for a property. Most agencies have
development standards that establish a basic minimum amount of
infrastructure for certain types of development, and in many
instances have adopted ordinances that require an extension of
lines to connect to existing infrastructure. As a result, by the
time the planning commission is considering a project these
issues have largely been addressed.
Occasionally infrastructure must be brought from an area outside
of the project boundaries and occasionally for some distance.
When this occurs, there are direct impacts such as trenching,
road closure, etc. associated with construction and indirect
impacts such as growth inducement that the commission must
consider. As this need would be part of the project itself, both
the direct and indirect impacts should also be addressed in the
staff report for the project and provided to the commission.
The commission will have a considerable say in where
infrastructure is provided in long range planning associated with
a general or a specific plan, or master planning of a large
project. As a part of this process, the commission will need to
consider existing and future land uses. Staff will provide
information regarding utilities in that area that may be
available to support additional development. An example might be
considering adding new housing to a downtown where water and
sewer lines already exist. In some instances, there will be
adequate capacity because the system may have been designed for
housing in the past, in others expansion of the system may be
required as part of any improvements. Without a technical
engineering study, it is not possible to know what improvements
will be needed.
Infrastructure Planning
Good Infrastructure Planning
Good infrastructure planning starts with the general plan and the
anticipated density and intensity of development. Because we can
estimate utility demand based on population and building size,
dwelling units, persons per acre, type and size of commercial
development are important components of long-range planning.
Ideally infrastructure should be phased, meaning that you only
build enough to meet your short-term needs and allow for
expansion to meet long term needs. However, the individual phases
may need to be larger than the project at hand to take advantage
of engineering efficiencies, or practicality. For example, it is
not possible to build half an overpass.
Infrastructure can also be used to help guide development into
areas of the community that meet the goals of the general plan.
If major infrastructure is extended into an area that currently
lacks infrastructure it becomes easier for development to occur,
which can attract developer interest. While in one context this
could be considered growth inducing, in another it can be seen as
furthering the expectations expressed in the general plan.
Infrastructure planning does not just look at new (greenfield)
development potential, it is also important to evaluate the
potential to intensify development that has already occurred. For
example, if you are expanding housing opportunities in your
downtown it is likely that that the new homes will have a greater
demand on sewer and water systems than the existing commercial
land use. While expanding existing infrastructure can be
disruptive to daily activities, encouraging infill may have
greater long-term benefits.
Capital Improvement Plans
A capital improvements plan (“CIP”) is a plan for the orderly
expansion and financing of infrastructure— like roads, drainage,
sewers, water lines, parks, libraries and other civic
amenities—to meet the needs of new and existing development.
These costs are critical expenditures that can seldom be covered
through a local agency’s annual operating budget. Once a CIP is
created, it can be used to establish a fee schedule for new
development. The planning agency is required to review capital
improvements for consistency with the general plan. One method of
ensuring consistency is to have the planning commission review
and make a general plan consistency finding for the CIP prior to
its adoption by the agency.
To provide a simple example, if a city’s capital improvements
plan calls for each neighborhood to have its own park and the
estimated cost for a park in a new 2000-unit development is
$100,000, the per-unit fee would be $500. Most calculations are
more complex, but the idea is the same: new development should
pick up its fair share of the cost of infrastructure. Remember,
however, that new development cannot be asked to make up for
shortcomings in existing infrastructure. For example, if an
existing wastewater treatment plant needs to be replaced, the
agency cannot place the entire replacement cost on new
development.
Master plans are often prepared for important infrastructure.
These plans are based on the general plan and reflect the
anticipated development potential within the service area covered
by the plan. Often the staff report or analysis for the project
will reference whether the project is consistent with the water,
wastewater or storm drainage master plan. In some cases, payment
of fees is all that is needed for the project to be considered
consistent, and in others the project will actually construct
some of the improvements called for in the master plan. As the
improvements and fees are based on development potential,
projects that are less than the expected potential can have an
impact on the overall plan because the agency may receive less in
the way of fees which can affect funding of other plan
components.
Wet Utilities
Water
Developers refer to infrastructure as utilities and divide them
into wet and dry utilities. Wet utilities include water, sewer
and storm drainage. Water service can be provided by a public
agency or by a private water company or in some instances by the
landowner themselves through either a private well or collection
of wells. The placement of water lines is regulated by an
agency’s design standards and by the physical constraints of the
site. Because water lines operate under pressure, steep slopes
and valleys are not as critical an issue to new water
lines.
It is important to note that most water services are sized
(meaning the diameter of the pipes and the design of the system)
not for the actual use of the building but to meet fire flow
which is a much higher demand. Water providers prepare an Urban
Water Management Plan (UWMP) that assumes development consistent
with a general plan, shows the service area and source of all
water. Usually, a project that is consistent with the general
plan and the UWMP is sufficient to determine there is adequate
water for that project. Note that the update periods of the UWMP
and different than those of the general plan therefore as part of
the development review process the agency confers with the water
provider early in the development review process to ensure
adequate water resources. For large projects, Water Code Section
10910 requires preparation of a Water Supply Assessment (WSA) as
part of the environmental documentation for the project. The WSA
must demonstrate that water is available to meet the needs of the
project during multiple drought years.
For rural projects, or projects that are on some form of
groundwater well, providing service can be more complicated. The
reason for this is the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act
that establishes regional planning to prevent overdraft of
groundwater. Overdraft is when more water is extracted from the
ground than can be replenished. Other planning considerations for
groundwater wells include water quality, gallons per minute,
emergency generator(s) as backup and possible interaction with
other groundwater wells. Well placement, abandonment and
construction are usually overseen by the local health department
who maintain standards for groundwater wells.
In California, water is a valuable and scarce resource. The wise
and efficient use, and ultimately reuse of water, is an essential
part of the long range and current planning process. After years
of multiple droughts, our fragile water collection and
distribution system is mandating that decisions on development
include a discussion of water usage. Depending on location and
water resources, efficient use of water may require the
elimination of lawns in some areas, and the extension of
reclaimed water into others.
Sewer
Sewer or sanitary sewer is arguably one of the most important
aspects of development as careful consideration is needed to
avoid contamination and health impacts. Agencies that provide
sewer service create master plans that rely on development
potential established by the general plan. These master plans
often form the basis of impact fees charged for development to
connect to the system. The sewer master plans typically have a
collection and a treatment system component.
Collection System
Sewer lines are placed underground, and ideally designed to use
gravity to move liquid and solids toward a wastewater treatment
plant. Because of the mix of liquid and solids, the slope of the
sewer line is important. If the slope of the line is too steep
the liquid will flow faster than the solids which can lead to the
solids blocking the pipe. If the slope of the line is too shallow
the flow will collect and can stagnate causing odor and blockage
problems. If topography does not allow the use of gravity, the
agency may require a form of pump known as a lift station to lift
the sewer up and into a gravity system. In some instances, the
pump can force sewage into a pressurized sewer line which is
known as a forced main. While lift stations and forced mains are
essential in some communities, engineers try to avoid them
because they require power and have moving parts which require
regular maintenance. Because of the potential for blockage, and
to relieve hydraulic pressure, lines are connected using a series
of manholes. A manhole (or maintenance hole) is usually a
concrete column that leads to the sewer line. The sewer line is
open at the bottom of a manhole to allow inspection and to remove
blockage.
Treatment System
Once the sewage reaches the wastewater treatment plant it is
treated in accordance with state and federal requirements. Some
wastewater treatment plants treat sewage at a level that allows
reuse of the water. Reused water can be pressurized like potable
water but is delivered in a purple pipe. The pipes are purple to
avoid cross connection with potable water lines that are white.
Purple pipe water is often used for irrigation of landscaping and
can also be used for some industrial purposes.
If a wastewater treatment plant does not create reusable water it
must discharge the water either onto land or into a receiving
water body. The quality of water discharged from the wastewater
treatment plant is regulated by the state Regional Water Quality
Control Board and is in a published permit that can be reviewed
by the public.
Onsite Systems
In areas where there is no sanitary sewer system, on-site systems
may be used. Because of the potential public health hazard, the
design of on-site systems is usually monitored by the health
department. The most commonly known on-site system is called a
septic tank. A septic tank consists of a concrete box that has
multiple chambers that capture liquids and solids from the
structure(s). Bacteria forms in the tank that breaks down the
solids and the excess liquid drains into a leach field. A leach
field is a collection of perforated pipes that are underground
and allow the liquids to drain into the soil where more bacteria
in the soil further treat the water. Septic tanks are dependent
upon soil types, depth to ground water, and the types of use, all
of which are regulated by the health department. Septic tanks
also require regular maintenance and rely upon the owner to have
knowledge of the system limitations.
There are several different ways of treating wastewater on-site
and each has benefits and constraints. Engineers will select the
system best suited for the project, soil conditions and
regulatory environment. These decisions seldom rise to the level
of the planning commission as they are highly technical in nature
and heavily regulated for public health and safety.
Drainage
Land can create impervious surfaces which are surfaces that repel
stormwater and keep it from soaking into the ground. Stormwater
runoff can be channelized by topography into creeks and rivers,
and by development through buildings, roads, curbs and channels.
Flowing water is powerful and erosive and unless kept in check it
can create damage and hazards far in excess to the size of a
given storm. The process of planning for storms is called
stormwater planning and often occurs at a regional and local
level.
All land can be placed in a defined watershed. A watershed is an
area with a ‘top’ and a ‘slope’ toward a receiving water body or
drainage. Development within the watershed changes the natural
drainage by placing buildings, roads and other improvements in
the path of stormwater. While collecting stormwater in pipes and
channels concentrates its potentially damaging effects, a
collection system can protect communities from flooding, aid in
groundwater recharge and in some cases allow reuse of the water.
Toward the top of the watershed the storm drainage system may
consist of curbs along paths or roadways that direct drainage
away from improvements. As the amount of impervious area
increases, the stormwater is directed to drop inlets (DI) which
is usually a form of grate in the curb line of a roadway that
leads to a pipe. A series of pipes and channels direct the
stormwater flow to the receiving waterbody. Generally, stormwater
system pipelines and channels are larger at the bottom of the
watershed the closer they are to the receiving water body.
As with sewer, the discharge of stormwater into a receiving water
body is regulated by the Regional Water Quality Control Board
(RWQC). The RWQC requires development to prepare a Stormwater
Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) as part of the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit (NPDES) that every
agency has, or operates under (some agencies operate under a
larger agency permit). The quality of the stormwater runoff is
monitored and if it exceeds standards active measures are
required to improve the quality. A component of the stormwater
system can include onsite detention or retention basins, along
with pervious landscaping or recharge areas to keep as much of
the stormwater on the project site as possible.
Dry Utilities
Electricity
While California is moving toward individual buildings providing
their own power, for the foreseeable future there will still be a
need to connect to the larger power grid. Power lines range in
size from very large to very small and have different design and
setback requirements based on their size. For example, it may not
make fiscal sense to underground some power lines because of
their size, while others are usually required to be undergrounded
for aesthetic reasons. Often an older community has a mix of
above ground services to buildings and underground
services.
Each community has different standards for the extension of
power; however, this usually is not a development issue that the
commission has to address. Often there can be a disagreement
between the developer and the agency on the size of line that
must be undergrounded because generally the larger the line the
more expensive it is to underground. A similar disagreement can
occur if power poles need to be relocated for a road or
intersection improvement. This is usually a fiscal argument
rather than a planning issue and will likely be decided at the
council or board level. Note that some general plans have
policies that require undergrounding, and the commission may be
asked to consider whether the condition of approval is consistent
with the general plan. The other requirements for electrical
connection are found in the California Building Code (CBC), and cannot be
changed by commission action.
Electric and Magnetic Fields from Power Lines
The concern over electric and magnetic fields from power lines is
a frequent topic at commission meetings. Unfortunately, the
science is not conclusive, which makes discussing the issue
difficult. The following text is taken from the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA)
website on the issue. “Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) consists
of waves of electric and magnetic energy moving together through
space. An example of electromagnetic radiation is visible light.
Electromagnetic radiation can range from low to high frequency,
which is measured in hertz, and can range from low to high
energy, which is measured in electron volts. Wavelength, another
term associated with electromagnetic radiation, is the distance
from the peak of one wave to the next.”
There are two general kinds of electromagnetic radiation:
ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation
is powerful enough to knock electrons out of their orbit around
an atom. This process is called ionization and can be damaging to
a body’s cells. Non-ionizing radiation has enough energy to move
atoms in a molecule around and cause them to vibrate, which makes
the atom heat up, but not enough to remove the electrons from the
atoms.
Electromagnetic Fields (EMF)
Electromagnetic fields associated with electricity are a type of
low frequency, non-ionizing radiation, and they can come from
both natural and man-made sources. For example, lightning during
a thunderstorm creates electromagnetic radiation because it
creates a current between the sky and the ground. Surrounding
that current is an electromagnetic field. One example is the
Earth’s magnetic field. We are always in the Earth’s magnetic
field, which is generated at the Earth’s core. This magnetic
field makes compasses work and is also used by pigeons and fish
to navigate.
Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
EMR associated with power lines is a type of low frequency
non-ionizing radiation. Electric fields are produced by electric
charges, and magnetic fields are produced by the flow of
electrical current through wires or electrical devices. Because
of this, low frequency EMR is found near electrical sources such
as power lines. As current moves through a power line, it creates
a magnetic field called an electromagnetic field. The strength of
the EMF is proportional to the amount of electrical current
passing through the power line and decreases as you move farther
away. Because of this property, the exposure to an
electromagnetic field you would receive from a power line
decreases with distance.
Read more.
Increasing distance, usually in the form of a setback, easement,
roadway, parking lot or other design feature that only provides
for occasional or temporary exposure to the power line(s) is the
primary method of addressing health concerns over EMF and EMR.
Read
more.
Gas
Some communities have access to natural gas in pipes that are
underground. Natural gas is provided by one of the utility
companies, often in conjunction with electricity, and metered
into the individual property. In areas where natural gas is not
available, gas may be provided through individual propane tanks
that are stored on the property being served, or occasionally on
one property that serves several others that are close by. These
tanks must be placed carefully as they need to be filled
regularly by truck and should be protected from snow accumulation
and accidental damage. The tanks can also be considered unsightly
by some so screening of some type is usually required. The use of
gas in development is regulated by the California Building Code,
and in some instances by an agency climate action plan that may
have strict regulations regarding the use of natural gas.
Communication Infrastructure
Other utilities include cable television, telephone lines, fiber
optic cable delivering broadband internet, and even wireless
systems that can transmit within and outside of a development
providing service to an area. Most of these are provided
underground and included in trenches that are separate from the
wet utilities as mixing dry and wet utilities is not permitted by
regulation. Like power and water, these utilities are often
provided by private companies or districts in collaboration with
the community as part of a franchise agreement or other
public-private agreement to provide service.
